Goodbye ATX

I write my final blog post sat in my favourite coffee shop on South Congress. As I sit and sip on my drink, I am able to reflect on these past eight months - or so I thought I would be able to do. I had not anticipated how hard it would be to answer the supposedly easy question ‘how was your year abroad?’ This has become especially apparent as I continue to deliberate what to write; it is clear just how difficult it is to choose what to say whilst still ensuring I am forming coherent sentences. Unsurprisingly, my page has become a series of disjointed and half-written sentences interlinked with confused arrows. Perhaps this reflects the extent of what I truly want to say; how I want my time here to be reflected well in order to give it the justice it deserves. So here it goes…

Whether people have been to the US or not, everyone has an opinion of the country, the Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave, the greatest country in the world. People say good things but people also say bad things. Expectantly, I arrived in August, completely unaware what this year would bring. I didn’t get the significance of them dumping the tea into the harbour and I didn’t even know Texas had been its own country in the past. But now that’s changed, and through my time here, I’ve been able to generate my own set of opinions on the USA. I’ve been shown a side of the USA that I like: the friendliness, openness, and approachability of the people I’ve met; Austin’s eccentricity, its small town feel in one of the fastest growing cities in the country, and its countless cacti; the never-ending blue skies and 32-degree heat, even in April; and the new topics I have wouldn’t have been able to learn at UCL, whilst simultaneously having the opportunity to have the infamous American university experience.

It has been an interesting year to the be in the US. The word ‘interesting’ is truly an understatement and does not quite fit the description; perhaps a more suitable word would be ‘insane.' The change in administration shocked the world. I’ve been fortunate to witness this first-hand, seeing those exasperated discussions and conversations, and hearing the fitting analogy of the election to a Black Mirror episode… Being in the country, I’ve observed the uplifting resistance and opposition. Interning with the Sierra Club Lone Star Chapter here in Austin, I have seen Texas’ considerable green side and relentless battle against President Trump; I’ve been able to meet a collection of inspiring individuals who care so much about changing the state for the better. That’s something I’ll remember.

So, going back to the question on how my year abroad has been… I will say it has been an experience that I am profusely thankful for; I’ve been part of a culture so different to the one I’m used to at home, met people whom I never thought I would ever have had the chance to, seen places I never thought I would see, and have learnt many things (good and bad) along the way. And as I conclude this post, it marks the beginning of the end of my time here at UT; there are only ten days until the end of the semester and four short weeks until I leave Texas. Unsurprising, the mad rush of completing my Austin bucket list begins now. You’ve been nice, Austin. I’ll make sure to say some good things about you when I return home and hopefully I’ll see you some point in the future.

Terra preta as a super soil

Amazonian ecosystems exhibit low fertility levels in highly weathered soils and therefore, it has been assumed for many years that environmental limitations prevent intensive agriculture in this region (e.g. Meggers, 1954). Within this ecosystem, however, patches of dark-coloured soils have been found; these patches exhibit stark differences in soil properties compared to the predominant soils in Amazonia, with the dark patches being characterised by high organic matter and nutrient levels (Glaser, 2007). These dark soils are locally called Terra Preta de Indio, which translates to Amazonian Dark Earths.

Terra preta is typically defined as a soil characterised by a several decimetre-thick topsoil horizon, which exhibits high levels of soil organic matter, biochar, and nutrients in addition to containing archaeological artefacts of pre-Colombian origin (Glaser and Birk, 2012). A typical terra preta soil profile exhibits a number of varying qualities that differ to a ferralsol, the region’s predominant soil. Ferralsols tend to have a shallow surface horizon that is light brown in colour. This horizon overlays a several metre thick subsoil horizon that has a loamy or sandy texture with a structure dominated by micro aggregates (Glaser et al. 2001). Terra preta on the other hand, has a dark grey or black coloured topsoil that can reach a depth of up to one metre. Within this horizon, potsherds, small bone, and charcoal particles are commonly found in addition to signs of bioturbation and aggregates of biogenic material. Beneath this horizon, there is a light coloured layer that tends to show patches of different brown, grey, and black colour. This layer shows clear signs of mixing of topsoil and subsoil material. Significantly, the subsoil horizons are identical to the subsoil horizons found in the adjacent soils in the area (Glaser et al. 2001).

Terra preta soils have historically presented a conundrum regarding their formation; previous theories have included allochthonous inputs, including volcanic deposits from the Andes or from sediment deposits from ancient lakes (Glaser and Birk, 2012). However, pedological and archaeological investigations have confirmed that this soil has an anthropogenic origin, formed from waste and charcoal deposits made by pre-Colombian Indians from 500 to 2500 years B.P. and abandoned after the invasion of Europeans (Neves et al. 2003).

It is these charcoal deposits that have made terra preta soils so unique; the porosity of the bio-char facilities the formation of organic chemical compounds, resulting in the soil to become rich in carbon, as well as other essential nutrients, such as NPK, which in turn increases the fertility of the soil (Glaser and Knorr, 2008). Similarly, increased fertility is also facilitated by the high organic matter content; it increases nutrient recycling and results in the soil to have a high cation exchange capacity, which limits leaching (Glaser, 2007). Furthermore, the presence of pottery shards acts as a mulch layer, limiting soil moisture loss while the uniquely evolved microbes present in the soil contribute to soil richness and nutrient recycling (Woods and McCann, 1999).

Unsurprisingly, terra preta could act as a model for sustainable agriculture in the humid tropics and other soils characterised by a low nutrient holding capacity. The techniques that led to the formation of terra preta have the capability to decrease land degradation from recently utilised intensive agriculture in the region in addition to reclaim the degraded areas (Glaser, 2007). Furthermore, the high stability of soil organic matter in terra preta coupled with experimental data (e.g. Kuzyakov et al. 2009) has shown that carbon can be sequestered for millennia within this type of soils. Consequently, terra preta has the ability to combine sustainable farming practices with long-term carbon dioxide sequestration. It would not be wrong to speculate the potential this black soil has in transforming agriculture around the world. 

References 

Denevan, W.M. (1996) ‘A bluff model of riverine settlement in prehistoric Amazonia’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 86, 654-681. 

Glaser, B. (2007) ‘Prehistorically modified soils of Central Amazonia: a model for sustainable agriculture in the 21st century?’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 362, 187–196, 

Glaser, B. and J.J. Birk (2012) ‘State of the scientific knowledge on properties and genesis of Anthropogenic Dark Earths in Central Amazonia (terra preta de Índio)’, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 82, 39-51. 

Kern, D.C., G. D’Aquino, T.E. Rodriques, F.J.L Franzao, W. Sombroek, T.P. Myers and E.G. Neves (2003) ‘Distribution of Amazonian Dark Earths (terra preta) in the Brazilian Amazon’ in J.Lehmann et al. (eds.) Amazonian Dark Earths: Origin, Properties, Management. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dodrecht, 105-124. 

Kuzyakov. Y, I. Subbotina, I. Bogomolova, and L. Xu X. (2009) 'Black carbon decomposition and incorporation into soil microbial biomass estimated by 14C labeling', Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 41, 210-219. 

McCann, J.M., W.I. Woods and D.W. Meyer (2001) ‘Organic matter and Anthrosols in Amazonia: interpreting the amerindian legacy’. In: Sustainable Management of Soil Organic Matter (eds. Rees et al.), CABI Publishing: Wallingford, 181-189.

Meggers, B.J. (1954) ‘Environmental limitation on the development of culture’, American Anthropologist, 56, 801-824. 

Neves, E.G., J.B. Peterson, R.N. Bartone and C.A. Da Silva (2003) ‘Historical and socio-cultural origins of Amazonian Dark Earths’ in J. Lehman et al. (eds.) Amazonian Dark Earths: Origin, Properties, Management. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dodrect, 29-50. 

Sombroek, W. D. Kern, T. Rodriguez, M. Cravo, W. Woods and B. Glaser (2002) ‘Terra preta and Terra mulata: pre-Columbian Amazon kitchen middens and agricultural fields, their sustainability and their replication’. In: 17th World Congress of Soil Science.

The Daily Texan

The Daily Texan is a student led newspaper distributed daily at UT. You only have to walk twenty metres to find your free copy on campus. Last semester, I would read it every day, but this semester I have been a little lax. Regardless, I like reading them: the reporting on current Texan matters, their short yet effective opinion pieces, the insights into events on campus, and the informative coverage of UT sports.

It’s made me wish that UCL had its own daily newspaper. I would definitely read it.

Find out more about the Daily Texan by visiting http://www.dailytexanonline.com/

Providence Canyon: a testament to human influence on nature

Providence Canyon state park, with its 16 gullies reaching down to 150 feet and its soft soil shaded in orange, red, pink, and even purple tones, proved to be an interesting topic of discussion in class. The state park is located in south-west Georgia and is commonly referred to as Georgia’s Little Grand Canyon. The network of gorges, cliffs, plateaus, and pinnacles has attracted not only tourists but a host of academic attention.

Providence Canyon is regarded to be so spectacular because of its remarkable proof of anthropogenic devastation on nature. The canyons were once believed to be a natural phenomenon and in the 1930s, were even described as a gift from God (Sutter, 2010). Over time, however, Providence Canyon would be used to show the devastating effects human induced land-use change was having on the environment.

The park is located in Stewart Country, an area renowned for its history of human induced soil erosion (Sanders, 2015); grassland prairies were rapidly converted to cotton fields by settlers, where the region was eventually transformed into one of the richest areas of the plantation South (Terrill, 1958). However, agriculture was extensive and the soils became exhausted; south-eastern soils tend to be ultisols, commonly acidic and mineral deficient that are prone to exhaustion if not properly managed (Richter and Markewitz, 2001). Therefore, unsurprisingly, sustained cropping in tobacco, cotton, and corn depleted the soils and the canyons began forming in the early 1800s due to poor soil-management practices (Sanders, 2015).

Vegetation that once held soil in its place was removed, leaving exposed soil that was susceptible to the erosive effects of rainfall characteristic of the region. Furthermore, the top layer of soil was easily washed away, which left the less permeable clay horizon exposed; the soil became susceptible to destabilisation from below, producing caving, sloughing, and piping, while the exposed clay layer also decreased the infiltration rate, increasing surface flow and erosion (Sutter, 2010). Additionally, the erosivity of runoff was magnified by farmers ploughing up and down slopes that resulted in water to concentrate in furrows while simultaneously decreasing the infiltration capacity of the soil surface. Consequently, hillside ditches and poorly built and maintained terraces became gullies (Sutter, 2010).

To exacerbate the issue, rainfall in the southeast tends to concentrate in the Spring and early Summer when the cropped fields traditionally lacked vegetation cover to help protect against the erosivity of the rainfall (Sutter, 2010). Southern farmers did not have the resources, technology, and the networks to help decrease the major erosion problems. Similarly, the farmers lacked the motivation to deal with the issue; as long as there was land available, the farming practices continued and by 1860, Stewart County was producing 19,165 bales of cotton, ranking second amongst all the counties in Georgia (Sutter, 2010). Cotton production in the county peaked around 1890 but by the 1930s, the gullies were at the depth of their development (Magilligan and Stamp, 1997). The irony of apparently fine working lands and deep gullies had become especially apparent.

Providence Canyon demonstrates the power of human agency and our species’ ability to transform the landscape. Once Providence Canyon became a state park in 1971 (Sutter, 2010), it could be argued that it began to represent where we went wrong and consequently, now highlights our shortcomings, which in turn prevent us from inflicting such environmental damage again. On the other hand, we arguably started to celebrate the beauty of an environmental disaster. It is not hard to be amazed by the canyon’s beauty; if you were oblivious to its formation, it would be easy to be impressed at nature’s ability to carve out such intricate features. However, once I found out that Providence Canyon was a result of unsustainable farming practices, I was disappointed. In my opinion, the canyon signifies what happens when ideas and modes of production are implemented into complicated new environments without regard, restraints, or enthusiasm to pay attention and adapt accordingly. Nonetheless, I would love to be able to see Providence Canyon for myself.

References
Magilliga, F. and M.L. Stamp (1997) ‘Historical Land-Cover Changes and Hydrogeomorphic Adjustment in a Small Georgia Watershed,’ Annuals of the Association of American Geographers, 87, 614-635.

Richter, D.D. and D. Markewitz (2001) Understanding Soil Change: Soil Sustainability over Millennia, Centuries, and Decades, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sanders, S. (2015) Providence Canyon [Online]. Atlanta: New Georgia Encyclopedia. Available at: http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/geography-environment/providence-canyon [Accessed 5th April 2017].

Sutter, P. (2010) ‘What Gullies Mean: Georgia’s Little Grand Canyon’, Journal of Southern History, 76, 579-616.

Climate Change in Texas

Until moving to Austin last August, I have predominately spent most of my life in the U.K.; growing up in the north of England, I experienced cold, grey winters that seemed to last for five months followed by a mildly warm summer that would inevitably last for less than six weeks. It was quite a rarity to open the curtains and see blue sky. However, when this would magically happen, we would all make sure to stay outside for as long as possible, where we would vitally replenish our deprived vitamin D stores.

Fast forward to the present day and I can verify that my vitamin D levels are certainly the highest they have ever been; I now expect to see blue sky when I open my blinds in the morning. And as a Brit deep in the heart of Texas, I can also verify that it gets hot here. However, what I find most intriguing is how abnormally hot it has been all year round: last semester, I remember the temperature would suddenly drop one day to the next (perhaps from 25 degrees Celsius to 9 degrees Celsius and then falling further the day after). I would consequently think that this was the start of the Autumn, as Texas should experience colder temperatures during the winter period. But then, temperatures would soar back up to previous levels and my confusion would intensify. 

It made me wonder whether this truly was Texas’ climate. I did a bit of researching and perhaps to my lack of surprise, I found that this weather is not typical of Texas. Last year, Texas experienced the third-warmest year on record, just behind 2012 and 2011, whilst October and November experienced temperatures that were 5.5 degrees Fahrenheit higher than average temperatures (Sadasivam, 2017a). Furthermore, Austin-Bergstrom airport recorded 26 days with temperatures 26.7 degrees Celsius or higher this winter period, breaking the previous record of 16 days (Sadasivam, 2017b). And additionally, February has now been declared as the warmest February on record in Texas; the average temperature was 14.1 degrees Celsius compared to the long-term average of 9.4 degrees Celsius (Sadasivam, 2017b).

These figures are especially disheartening when you take into account that 2016 was an El-Nino year: during an El-Nino, temperatures tend to be colder than average in Texas (State Climate Office of North Carolina, nd). El-Nino conspires against warmer temperatures for the region, yet temperatures records still broke. Texan bluebonnets have bloomed earlier this Spring and cotton has been planted two weeks earlier than average (Buchele, 2017). All of this makes me wonder what would happen during La-Nina, when the area is expected to experience warmer than average temperatures.

The temperature anomalies I have witnessed here in Texas all demonstrate how climate change is playing an influential role in the region’s weather patterns. And even though temperature anomalies recorded earlier in the year cannot provide any clues for weather patterns later in the year, I am happy that I will not be around in Texas during the hottest months of the year - just in case.

Just one of the days I was enjoying the unusual heat in December

References

Buchele, M. (2017) Seeing Wildflowers Blooming Early on Texas Roadsides? Blame La Niña & Global Warming [Online]. Austin: KUT. Available at: http://kut.org/post/seeing-wildflowers-blooming-early-texas-roadsides-blame-la-ni-global-warming [Accessed 20th March 2017].

Sadasivam, N. (2017a) 2016 Climate Recap: Record Temperatures, Warm Winters and Heavy Showers [Online]. Austin: The Texas Observer. Available at: https://www.texasobserver.org/2016-climate-recap-record-temperatures-warm-winters-heavy-showers/ [Accessed 20^th March 2017].

Sadasivam, N. (2017b) Last Month Was the Hottest February on Record in Texas [Online]. Austin: The Texas Observer. Available at: https://www.texasobserver.org/weather-texas-warmest-february-record/ [Accessed 20^th March 2017].

State Climate Office of North Carolina (nd) Global Patterns - El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) [Online]. Raleigh: State Climate Office of North Carolina. Available at: http://climate.ncsu.edu/climate/patterns/ENSO.html [Accessed 21st March 2017].  

Discovery is the common theme

I’ve spent over six months in the States and all of a sudden, there is now only three short months left of my year abroad. Recently, someone asked me: ‘what’s the biggest culture shock you have experienced since arriving here?’ Although in theory this seems like a fairly light-hearted and easy question, it got me thinking. Thinking quite a lot.

As I mentioned in my second blog post, I knew very little about Texas and Austin so I didn’t really know what to expect. However, I have indeed found out that there is a rather big culture difference between here and home. We may share a language, but even then there are many differences: for instance, the astonished and slightly bewildered looks when I said currants (those red berries…). They just had no idea – that was kind of funny. Or our differing sense of humours… I attended an improv comedy night last semester and surprisingly, I just didn’t find it that funny. Now that was kind of sad.

However, my reply to that surprisingly difficult question was the religious difference between here and home; I don’t know many people who are religious at home, specifically Christian. This isn't surprising because now more people identify themselves as non-religious than religious in England and Wales, with that difference being higher between millennials (Sherwood, 2016). Here in Texas, in addition to the other states I have travelled to, religion still seems to play a prominent role in people’s lives, even among the younger generation; I know many UT students that practice Christianity and identify themselves as Christian. This was especially evident yesterday during Ash Wednesday when I saw lots of students on campus with a cross marked on their forehead. 

This is just another discovery I have made during my time here in the States. And that’s what I have realised links my blog posts altogether: a common theme of discovery. This may be as my first few weeks in Austin, familiarising myself with the campus and the city, or finding out Austin is succumbing to the forces of gentrification, in addition to exploring Texas’s liberal and green sides, or finding out the great facilities UT Austin has to offer. As I said before, I do indeed have only three months left but it is certain that I will make many more discoveries within that time.

References

Sherwood, H. (2016) People of no religion outnumber Christians in England and Wales – study, [Online]. London: The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/23/no-religion-outnumber-christians-england-wales-study [Accessed 1st March 2016]. 

Texas: an unlikely green energy leader

Every once in a while, my dad and I exchange articles that we think the other person will enjoy. Yesterday, he fittingly sent me a link to ‘‘The wild west of wind:’ Republicans push Texas as unlikely green energy leader’; the two authors note how Texas has become a national leader in wind energy, producing three times as much energy as Iowa, the state with the second largest wind capacity.

I loved seeing Texas perceived as a pioneer in renewable energy. However, it must not be forgotten that the state similarly produces the most natural gas, coal, and crude-oil across the whole of the United States (EIA, 2017). This state is predominately Republican and sustainable practices do not abide well with their agenda.

The article does not mention the Democrats, lobbyists, and environmental organisations that work hard to push for a greener agenda. For instance, the Sierra Club’s Lone Star Chapter, the grassroots environmental NGO that aims to protect and preserve Texas’ natural resources, is involved in advocating renewable energy at the local and state levels. I’m pretty sure that without these people and their endurance, Texas wouldn’t be this ‘green energy leader’.

References

EIA (2017) Texas: State Profile and Energy Estimates, [Online]. Washington D.C.: U.S. Energy Information Administration. Available at: http://www.eia.gov/state/?sid=TX [Accessed 21 February 2017].

Throwback

Here at UT, the university actively encourages you to take courses in other departments. This is quite contrary to UCL: I’ve taken only one class outside of the geography department, which was indeed a geology class… However, I’ve decided to take advantage of this at UT; last semester, in addition to my three other geography classes, I took a journalism class and this semester, I am also enrolled in a non-major drawing class.

I am currently completing my first unit project for my drawing class and it’s reminding me of my AS art class – it is like I am 16 again. I would be lying if I said that this didn’t feel strange. However, it is nice to have a little break from geog once a week. 

Drawing cacti and getting graded on it this time

The Texas I have come to admire

On my tenth day in the USA, I decided to attend a Trump rally in Austin. Thinking about that now and remembering what I experienced, I didn’t enjoy my time there yet I definitely do not regret going. The experience opened my eyes. The media often portrayed Trump’s rallies as being relatively light-hearted; the press would specifically highlight some of his infamous syntax whilst I’d watch on my screen in my little bubble that was safely away from Trump. As a consequence, I approached the rally reasonably excited, expecting that I would be met with that same light-heartedness. I was completely wrong. Instead, I felt this dark and tense atmosphere that was tainted with anger and resentment towards a current America that many seemed to detest. I remember how red hats were dotted around the crowd and there were USA chants echoing in the room; my friends and I sat at the back where we attempted to stay out of sight. Before I decided to leave, Trump said softly "Isn't there no safer place to be than in a Trump rally in the heart of Texas?" and I remember thinking the complete opposite. I hoped that this was not the America or Austin that I would experience for the next ten months.

Saturday 21^st January highlighted how that is not the America or Austin I am currently witnessing. This Saturday was momentous because it was the day where more than 50,000 marchers came together at the Texas’ State Capital building to join the protests occurring around the globe that were prompted by the election of President Trump (Dreher, 2017). Men, women, and children converged to campaign about reproductive rights, sexual harassment, gender equality within the economy, and fundamental human rights.

The atmosphere I witnessed on Saturday was a stark contrast to the one I felt at the Trump rally; the march was empowering and welcoming, and there was a strong sense of solidarity. And even though the march was highlighting the dissatisfaction towards the election of President Trump and all he represents, there was no direct resentment or bitterness.

Returning home over the Christmas break, many people asked whether I was enjoying my year abroad, specifically inquiring about my thoughts on Texas. Within these questions, there would be a subtle fabrication of Texas that was synonymous with guns, cowboys and Republicans. I’d then politely reply that the Texas I know and admire is quite different to those perceptions. The march on Saturday was just a clear example of this.

Some of the inspiring signs used at the Women's March in Austin

References

Dreher, L. (2017) Austin joins global Women’s March. Austin: The Daily Texan. Available at: www.dailytexanonline.com [Accessed 23rd January 2017].